The health and social effects of nonmedical cannabis use, WHO, 2016

The health and social effects of nonmedical cannabis use

World Health Organization, 2016.

CONTENTS
Foreward. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . v
Acknowledgements .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  . . . . . . .. . . . vi
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . 1
2. Cannabis substance profile and its health impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.1 What do we know?.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.1.1 Cannabis, cannabinoids, cannabis-use disorders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . 2
2.1.2 Cannabis preparations and mode of administration.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . 2
2.1.3 Changes in cannabis potency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.1.4 Risk and protective factors.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..  . . . . . 4
2.1.5 Short-term health effects of cannabis use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.1.6 Long-term health effects of cannabis use. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 6
2.1.7 Approach to making causal inferences.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 6
3. Epidemiology of cannabis use, disorders and treatment .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 9
3.1 What do we know?.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.1.1 Prevalence of cannabis use. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.1.2 Prevalence of cannabis-use disorders. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.1.3 Treatment trends.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.1.4 Areas that require more research.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4. Neurobiology of cannabis use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . 15
4.1 What do we know?.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
4.1.1 The psychoactive components and neurobiology of cannabis use.. . . . . . . . . . . . . .  . . . . 15
4.1.2 Neurobiology of long-term cannabis use. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  . . . . 15
4.1.3 Neurobiology of prenatal cannabis exposure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  . . . . 16
4.1.4 Neurobiology of cannabis effects in adolescence. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
4.1.5 Modifiers of risk: the interplay between genetics and environment . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . 17
4.1.6 Areas that require more research.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
5. Short-term effects of cannabis .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  . . . . . . . 19
5.1 What do we know?.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . 19
5.1.1 Cognition and coordination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
5.1.2 Anxiety and psychotic symptoms .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . 19
5.1.3 Acute toxicity .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . … . 19
5.1.4 Acute cardiovascular effects.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . 19
5.1.5 Acute effects on lungs and airways.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . … . . 20
5.1.6 Traffic injuries and fatalities.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  . . .  . . . . 20
5.1.7 Other injury (not related to driving) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
5.1.8 Cannabis and the workplace.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . 22
5.1.9 Areas that require more research.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  . . . . 22
6. Mental health and psychosocial outcomes of long-term cannabis use .. . . . . .  . . . . .. . . . . 23
6.1 What do we know?.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  . . .. . . . . 23
6.1.1 Long-term cannabis use and dependence.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . 23
6.1.2 Long-term cannabis use and cognitive function.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
6.1.3 Long-term psychosocial consequences of adolescent cannabis use .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . 25
6.1.4 Psychosis and schizophrenia .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . 26
6.1.5 Other mental disorders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  . . . . . . . 28
6.1.6 Suicide risk, ideation and attempts.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  . . . . . . . 28
6.1.7 Suicide mortality.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
6.1.8 Areas that require more research.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
7. Long-term cannabis use and noncommunicable diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  . . . . . 31
7.1 What do we know?.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
7.1.1 Respiratory diseases.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
7.1.2 Cardiovascular diseases .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 32
7.1.3 Cancer.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
8. Prevention and treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
8.1 What do we know?.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  . . . . . . . . 36
8.1.1 Prevention of cannabis use.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
8.1.2 Treatment of disorders due to cannabis use .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . 37
8.1.3 Areas that require more research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
9. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
9.1 What do we know?.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . 40
9.1.1 What do we know about the neurobiology of cannabis use? .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
9.1.2 What do we know about the epidemiology of cannabis use and cannabis dependence ? 40
9.1.3 What do we know about the short-term effects of cannabis use?.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
9.1.4 What do we know about the long-term effects of regular cannabis use?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
9.1.5 What do we know about prevention and treatment?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
9.2 Priority areas for future research.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
9.2.1 Substance content and prevalence. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
9.2.2 Neurobiology of cannabis use.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
9.2.3 Health consequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
9.2.4 Social costs.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
9.2.5 Prevention.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
9.2.6 Treatment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

FOREWORD
Cannabis is globally the most commonly used psychoactive substance under international control. In 2013, an estimated 181.8 million people aged 15-64 years used cannabis for nonmedical purposes globally (UNODC, 2015). There is an increasing demand for treatment for cannabis-use disorders and associated health conditions in high- and middle-income countries. Almost 20 years have passed since the World Health Organization (WHO) published a report on the health consequences of cannabis use. Since then there has been significant research on the effects of cannabis use on health. I am therefore pleased to present this update on the health and social consequences of nonmedical cannabis use, with a special focus on the effects on young people and on long-term frequent use. This report focuses on nonmedical use of cannabis, building on contributions from a broad range of experts and researchers
from different parts of the world. It aims to present current knowledge on the impact of nonmedical cannabis use on health, from its impact on brain development to its role in respiratory diseases. The potential medical utility of cannabis – including the pharmacology, toxicology and possible therapeutic applications of the cannabis plant – is outside the scope of this report.
I hope that Member States, institutions and organizations will be able to make use of this report when prioritizing bareas for future international research on the health and social consequences of nonmedical cannabis use.
DR SHEKHAR SAXENA
DIRECTOR
DEPARTMENT OF MENTAL HEALTH AND SUBSTANCE ABUSE

 

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