The therapeutic role of Cannabidiol in mental health : a systematic review

Rabia Khan, Sadiq Naveed, Nadeem Mian, Ania Fida, Muhammad Abdur Raafey and Kapil Kiran Aedma

Journal of Cannabis Research, 2020, 2, 2

doi : 10.1186/s42238-019-0012-y

 

Abstract

Background : The therapeutic application of cannabidiol (CBD) is gaining interest due to expanding evidence for its use.

Objective : To summarize the clinical outcomes, study designs and limitations for the use of CBD and nabiximols (whole plant extract from Cannabis sativa L. that has been purified into 1:1 ratio of CBD and delta-9- tetrahydrocannabinol) in the treatment of psychiatric disorders.

Materials and method : A systematic review was conducted including case reports, case series, open-label trials, non-randomized and randomized controlled trials (RCTs). The search resulted in 23 relevant studies on CBD and nabiximols in the treatment of a wide range of psychiatric disorders. The quality of evidence was judged by using the Oxford Centre for Evidence-Based Medicine 2011 Levels of Evidence that ranges from Level 1 to Level 5 based on the quality and study design. These levels of evidence help in grading the recommendations, including Grade A (strong), Grade B (moderate), Grade C (weak), and Grade D (weakest).

Results : CBD and CBD-containing compounds such as nabiximols were helpful in alleviating psychotic symptoms and cognitive impairment in patients with a variety of conditions, and several studies provided evidence of effectiveness in the treatment of cannabis withdrawal and moderate to severe cannabis use disorder with Grade B recommendation. There is Grade B recommendation supporting the use of CBD for the treatment of schizophrenia, social anxiety disorder and autism spectrum disorder (ASD), and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Grade C recommendation exists for insomnia, anxiety, bipolar disorder, posttraumatic stress disorder, and Tourette syndrome. These recommendations should be considered in the context of limited number of available studies.

Conclusion : CBD and CBD-containing compounds such as nabiximols were helpful in alleviating symptoms of cannabis-related disorders, schizophrenia, social anxiety disorder, and comorbidities of ASD, and ADHD with moderate recommendation. However, there is weaker evidence for insomnia, anxiety, bipolar disorder, posttraumatic stress disorder, and Tourette syndrome. The evidence for the use of CBD and CBD-containing compounds for psychiatric disorders needs to be explored in future studies, especially large-scale and welldesigned RCTs.

Keywords : Cannabidiol (CBD), Nabiximols, Schizophrenia, Cannabis, Withdrawal, Dependence, Autism spectrum disorder (ASD), Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), Tourette syndrome, Bipolar disorder

 

Introduction

Cannabis sativa, a species of cannabis plant, is well known to humankind, with its earliest use in ancient Chinese culture dating as far back as 2700 B.C. (Zuardi, 2006). The use of medical cannabis in China was reported in the world’s oldest pharmacopoeia (Martin et al., 1999). However, interest in the role of cannabis flourished in the late twentieth century after the recognition of an endogenous cannabinoid system in the brain (Zuardi, 2006; Martin et al., 1999). More recently, research has centered on the description and cloning of specific receptors and the therapeutic effects of medical cannabis, and different cannabinoids in the cannabis plant have gained interest (Martin et al., 1999). Recent studies have focused on the therapeutic role of medical cannabis in different disorders. As a result, there is a growing need to summarize and review the evidence for its therapeutic and adverse effects as an aid to public health policy development, and to provide direction and impetus to pharmaceutical research in this field.

The cannabis plant has more than 140 cannabinoid compounds, with Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC) and cannabidiol (CBD) attracting significant interest (Citti et al., 2018). Δ9-THC is the primary psychoactive ingredient, and CBD is a non-intoxicating ingredient (Zuardi, 2006; Citti et al., 2018). Evidence from preclinical studies suggested that CBD had potential therapeutic benefits ranging from antiinflammatory to neuroprotective, antipsychotic, analgesic, anticonvulsant, antiemetic, antioxidant, antiarthritic, and antineoplastic properties; for a review, see (Pertwee, 2006). CBD has several receptors and molecular targets. This compound antagonizes the action of CB1 and CB2 receptor agonist (Blessing et al., 2015; Peres et al., 2018). The CB1 and CB2 receptors are coupled negatively through G-proteins to adenylate cyclase and positively to mitogen-activated protein kinase (Pertwee, 2006). In addition to CB1 and CB2 receptor activity, CBD is an agonist of vanilloid receptor TRPV1. It also acts as an agonist of serotonin receptor 5-hydroxytryptamine (5- HT1A), an antagonist of G-protein-coupled receptor GPR55, and an inverse agonist of GPR3, GPR6, and GPR12 (Peres et al., 2018). Data from single-photon emission computed tomography showed CBD to exert anxiolytic effects by acting on paralimbic and limbic pathways (Crippa et al., 2011). The agonist effect of CBD on 5- HT1A also supports its anxiolytic and antidepressant properties (Russo et al., 2005). CBD inhibits enzymatic hydrolysis and anandamide uptake through its agonist action on CB1, CB2, and TRPV1 receptors (Peres et al., 2018). In addition, CBD indirectly enhances endogenous anandamide signaling by inhibiting the intercellular degradation of anandamide (Leweke et al., 2012). This endogenous neurotransmitter exerts antipsychotic effects in patients with schizophrenia (Leweke et al., 2012).

The pharmacokinetic profile of CBD has been extensively explored in the existing literature. A recently published systematic review of the pharmacokinetics of CBD found that the area under curve (AUC0 − t) and maximum serum concentration (Cmax) occurs between 1 and 4 h (Millar et al., 2018). The AUC0 − t and Cmax reach maximum values faster after smoking or inhalation compared to oral or oromucosal routes. Bioavailability was 31% after smoking, but no other studies reported the absolute bioavailability of CBD after other routes in humans. The half-life of CBD ranges between 1.4 and 10.9 h after oro-mucosal spray and 2–5 days after chronic oral administration (Millar et al., 2018). Fed states and lipid formulations increase Cmax (Millar et al., 2018).

The bioavailability of oral CBD ranges between 11 and 13%, compared to 11 to 45% (mean 31%) via inhalation (Scuderi et al., 2009). CBD is well-tolerated, yet despite a relatively lower risk of drug–drug interactions, it should be used cautiously in combination with drugs metabolized by the CYP3A4 and CYP2C19 pathways, and the substrates of UDP-glucuronosyltransferases UGT1A9 and UGT2B7 (Millar et al., 2018). The clinical relevance of these interactions needs to be explored in future studies (Brown & Winterstein, 2019). Dronabinol and nabilone are synthetic in origin, whereas nabiximols is plant-based (Papaseit et al., 2018).

The percentage of THC and its ratio to CBD (THC/ CBD ratio) defines the potency and psychoactive effects of a given formulation (Papaseit et al., 2018). Those with higher CBD/Δ9-THC ratios have euphoric, anxiolytic, and relaxing effects, whereas lower CBD/Δ9-THC ratios have sedative properties (Papaseit et al., 2018). Nabiximols, a CBD-containing compound, contains Δ9-THC and CBD at a 1:1 ratio (Papaseit et al., 2018). The Food and Drug Administration has approved Epidiolex® (an oral formulation of CBD) for two forms of childhood seizures (Lennox–Gastaut syndrome and Dravet syndrome) in children 2 years of age and older (Papaseit et al., 2018).

Previous efforts to synthesize the evidence for medical cannabis use in patients with psychiatric disorders have been published (Hoch et al., 2019; Lowe et al., 2019). For example, Hoch et al. conducted an excellent systematic review that summarized four systematic reviews and 14 randomized controlled trials (RCTs), but did not consider non-clinical trial evidence (case reports and case series) (Hoch et al., 2019). A review by Mandolini et al. recently summarized the clinical findings from 14 studies of psychiatric disorders, but these authors did not provide information about nabiximols (Mandolini et al., 2018). In contrast to the review articles noted above, the present article aims to provide a more comprehensive review of the use of CBD and CBD-containing compounds such as nabiximols to treat psychiatric disorders.

The present review included studies focused on schizophrenia, cannabis-related disorders, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), comorbidities in autism spectrum disorder (ASD), social anxiety disorder (SAD), other anxiety disorders, insomnia, bipolar disorder, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), psychosis in Parkinson’s disease, and Tourette syndrome. This article broadly reviews the efficacy, safety, and psychiatric benefits of CBD and CBD-containing compounds (nabiximols). We distinguish clearly here between the clinical findings for CBD and nabiximols, as the latter also contains THC.

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